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His prints established his reputation across Europe when he was still in his twenties, and he has been conventionally regarded as the greatest artist of the Renaissance in Northern Europe ever since.
His prints established his reputation across Europe when he was still in his twenties, and he has been conventionally regarded as the greatest artist of the Renaissance in Northern Europe ever since.

== Journey to the Netherlands (1520-1521) ==


Following Maximilian's death, Dürer fell into a crisis, aware that the era of his patron had come to an end, but also affected by the writings of [[Martin Luther]]. In July 1520 Dürer made his fourth and last major journey. He sought to renew the Imperial pension Maximilian had given him to secure the patronage of the new emperor, [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], who was to be crowned at [[Aix-la-Chapelle]]. Dürer journeyed with his wife and her maid via the [[Rhine]] to [[Cologne]] and then to [[Antwerp]], where he was well-received and produced numerous drawings in [[silverpoint]], chalk and charcoal. In addition to going to the coronation, he made excursions to [[Cologne]] (where he admired the painting of [[Stefan Lochner]]), [[Nijmegen]], [['s-Hertogenbosch]], [[Bruges]] (where he saw [[Michelangelo]]'s [[Madonna of Bruges]]), [[Ghent]] (where he admired [[Jan van Eyck|van Eyck]]'s altarpiece) and [[Zeeland]].

Dürer took a large stock of prints with him and wrote in his diary to whom he gave, exchanged or sold them, and for how much. This provides rare information of the monetary value placed on [[old master print|prints]] at this time. Unlike paintings, their sale was very rarely documented.<ref>Landau & Parshall:350-54 and ''passim''</ref> While providing valuable documentary evidence, Dürer's Netherlandish diary also reveals that the trip was not a profitable one. For example, Dürer offered his last portrait of Maximilian to his daughter, [[Margaret of Habsburg (1480-1530)|Margaret of Austria]], but eventually traded the picture for some white cloth after Margaret disliked the portrait and declined to accept it. During this trip he also met [[Conrad Meit]], [[Bernard van Orley]], [[Jean Prevost]], [[Gerard Horenbout]], [[Jean Mone]], [[Joachim Patinir]] & [[Tommaso Vincidor]], though he did not, it seems, meet [[Quentin Matsys]].<ref>Panofsky:209</ref>

At the request of [[Christian II of Denmark]] Dürer went to [[Brussels]] to make the King's portrait. There he saw "the things which have been sent to the king from the golden land" — the [[Aztec]] treasure that [[Hernán Cortés]] had sent home to Holy Roman Emperor Charles V following the fall of [[Mexico]]. Dürer wrote that this treasure "was much more beautiful to me than miracles. These things are so precious that they have been valued at 100,000 florins".<ref name="Bartrum"/> Dürer also appears to have been collecting for his own [[cabinet of curiosities]], and he sent back to Nuremberg various animal horns, a piece of [[coral]], some large fish fins, and a wooden weapon from the [[East Indies]].

Having secured his pension, Dürer finally returned home in July 1521, having caught an undetermined illness—perhaps [[malaria]]<ref>Panofsky:</ref> —which afflicted him for the rest of his life, and greatly reduced his rate of work.<ref name="Bartrum"/>
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== Final years in Nuremberg (1521-28) ==
== Final years in Nuremberg (1521-28) ==

१९:०४, १५ डिसेम्बर २०१२तक्कया संस्करण

अल्ब्रेश्ट ड्युएरेर

सेल्फ-पोर्ट्रेट (१५००) by Albrecht Dürer, oil on board, Alte Pinakothek, म्युनिख
बुगु नांAlbrecht Dürer
बुगु (1471-05-21)मे 21, सन् 1471
नुरेम्बर्ग, पवित्र रोमन साम्राज्य
मदुगु अप्रिल 6, 1528(1528-04-06) (आयु 56)
नुरेम्बर्ग, पवित्र रोमन साम्राज्य
राष्ट्रियता जर्मन
ख्यः प्रिन्टमेकिङ, चित्रकला, इन्ग्रेभिङ
ज्या Knight, Death, and the Devil (1513)

Saint Jerome in his Study (1514) Melencolia I (1514) Dürer's Rhinoceros

'अल्ब्रेश्ट ड्युएरेर' डोइच भाषा: Albrecht Dürer (ˈalbʀɛçt ˈdyʀɐ) (मे २१, १४७१अप्रिल ६, १५२८)[१] छम्ह नुरेम्बर्गया जर्मन चित्रकलामि, प्रिन्टमेकरथियोरिस्ट ख। His still-famous works include the Apocalypse woodcuts, Knight, Death, and the Devil (1513), Saint Jerome in his Study (1514) and Melencolia I (1514), which has been the subject of extensive analysis and interpretation. His watercolours mark him as one of the first European landscape artists, while his ambitious woodcuts revolutionized the potential of that medium. Dürer's introduction of classical motifs into Northern art, through his knowledge of Italian artists and German humanists, have secured his reputation as one of the most important figures of the Northern Renaissance. This is reinforced by his theoretical treatise which involve principles of mathematics, perspective and ideal proportions.

His prints established his reputation across Europe when he was still in his twenties, and he has been conventionally regarded as the greatest artist of the Renaissance in Northern Europe ever since.

Final years in Nuremberg (1521-28)

Title page of Vier Bücher von menschlicher Proportion showing the monogram signature of Albrecht Dürer

On his return to Nuremberg, Dürer worked on a number of grand projects with religious themes, including a Crucifixion scene and a Sacra Conversazione, though neither was completed.[२] This may have been in part to his declining health, but perhaps also because of the time he gave to the preparation of his theoretical works on geometry and perspective, the proportions of men and horses, and fortification.

However, one consequence of this shift in emphasis was that during the last years of his life, Dürer produced comparatively little as an artist. In painting, there was only a portrait of Hieronymus Holtzschuher, a Madonna and Child (1526), Salvator Mundi (1526), and two panels showing St. John with St. Peter in front and St. Paul with St. Mark in the background. This last great work, the Four Apostles, was given by Dürer to the City of Nuremberg—although he was given 100 guilders in return.[३] An inscription relates the figures to the four humours.[४]

As for engravings, Dürer's work was restricted to portraits and illustrations for his treatise. The portraits include Cardinal-Elector Albert of Mainz; Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony; the humanist scholar Willibald Pirckheimer; Philipp Melanchthon, and Erasmus of Rotterdam. For those of the Cardinal, Melanchthon, and Dürer's final major work, a drawn portrait of the Nuremberg patrician Ulrich Starck, Dürer depicted the sitters in profile, perhaps reflecting a more mathematical approach.

Despite complaining of his lack of a formal classical education Dürer was greatly interested in intellectual matters and learned much from his boyhood friend Willibald Pirckheimer, whom he no doubt consulted on the content of many of his images. He also derived great satisfaction from his friendships and correspondence with Erasmus and other scholars. Dürer succeeded in producing two books during his lifetime. "The Four Books on Measurement" were published at Nuremberg in 1525 and was the first book for adults on mathematics in German,[५] as well as being cited later by Galileo and Kepler. The other, a work on city fortifications, was published in 1527. "The Four Books on Human Proportion" were published posthumously, shortly after his death in 1528 at the age of fifty-six.[१]

Dürer died in Nuremberg at the age of 56, leaving an estate valued at 6,874 florins—a considerable sum. His large house (purchased in 1509 from the heirs of the astronomer Bernhard Walther), where his workshop was located and where his widow lived until her death in 1537, remains a prominent Nuremberg landmark. [५] It is now a museum.

Dürer and the Reformation

Although Dürer was a Roman Catholic, it is clear from his writings that he was highly sympathetic to Martin Luther. Dürer wrote of his desire to draw Luther in his diary in 1520: "And God help me that I may go to Dr. Martin Luther; thus I intend to make a portrait of him with great care and engrave him on a copper plate to create a lasting memorial of the Christian man who helped me overcome so many difficulties." In a letter to Nicholas Kratzer in 1524 Dürer wrote "because of our Christian faith we have to stand in scorn and danger, for we are reviled and called heretics." Most tellingly, Pirckheimer wrote in a letter to Johann Tscherte in 1530: "I confess that in the beginning I believed in Luther, like our Albert of blessed memory...but as anyone can see, the situation has become worse." Dürer may even have contributed to the Nuremberg City Council mandating Lutheran sermons and services in March 1525. Notably, Dürer had contacts various reformers, such as Zwingli, Andreas Karlstadt, Melanchthon, Erasmus and Cornelius Grapheus from whom Dürer received Luther's 'Babylonian Captivity' in 1520.[६] In spite of all these reasons to believe Dürer was sympathetic to Lutheranism, at least in its early manifestations, he never in any way abandoned the Catholic Church.

Dürer's later works have also been claimed to show Protestant sympathies. For example, his engraving of The Last Supper of 1523 has often been understood to have an evangelical theme, focussing as it does on Christ espousing the Gospel, as well the inclusion of the Eucharistic cup, an expression of Protestant utraquism,[७] although this interpretation has been questioned.[८] The delaying of the engraving of St Philip, completed in 1523 but not distributed until 1526, may have been due to Dürer's uneasiness with images of Saints; even if Dürer was not an iconoclast, in his last years he evaluated and questioned the role of art in religion.[९]

Legacy and influence

The Cannon, Dürer's largest etching, 1518

Dürer exerted a huge influence on the artists of succeeding generations, especially in printmaking, the medium through which his contemporaries mostly experienced his art, as his paintings were predominately in private collections located in only a few cities. His success in spreading his reputation across Europe through prints was undoubtedly an inspiration for major artists such as Raphael, Titian, and Parmigianino, who entered into collaborations with printmakers to distribute their work beyond their local region.

His work in engraving seems to have had an intimidating effect upon his German successors, the "Little Masters", who attempted few large engravings but continued Dürer's themes in tiny, rather cramped compositions. The early Lucas van Leyden was the only Northern European engraver to successfully continue to produce large engravings in the first third of the century. The generation of Italian engravers who trained in the shadow of Dürer all either directly copied parts of his landscape backgrounds (Giulio Campagnola and Christofano Robetta), or whole prints (Marcantonio Raimondi and Agostino Veneziano). However, Dürer's influence became less dominant after 1515, when Marcantonio perfected his new engraving style, which in turn traveled over the Alps to dominate Northern engraving also.

In painting, Dürer had relatively little influence in Italy, where probably only his altarpiece in Venice was seen, and his German successors were less effective in blending German and Italian styles. His intense and self-dramatizing self-portraits have continued to have a strong influence up to the present, and have been blamed for some of the wilder excesses of artists' self-portraiture, especially in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

Dürer has never fallen from critical favour, and there have been revivals of interest in his works Germany in the Dürer Renaissance of about 1570 to 1630, in the early nineteenth century, and in German Nationalism from 1870 to 1945.[५] He is commemorated on the calendar of the Lutheran Church with other artists on April 6. The crater Dürer on Mercury was named in his honor.

His original works are now totally priceless, so much so that even his 19th Century Albertina prints & engravings are changing hands at leading galleries & auctions houses for many tens of thousands of dollars.

Dürer's theoretical works

In all his theoretical works, in order to communicate his theories in the German language, rather than Latin, Dürer used graphic expressions based on a vernacular, craftsmen's language, e.g. 'snail-line' ('Schneckenlinie') for a spiral, thus contributing to the expansion in German prose which Martin Luther had begun with his translation of the Bible.[३]

The Four Books on Measurement

Dürer's work on geometry is called the 'Four Books on Measurement' ('Underweysung der Messung mit dem Zirckel und Richtscheyt'). The first book focuses on linear geometry. Dürer's geometric constructions include helices, conchoids and epicycloids. He also draws on Apollonius, and Johannes Werner's 'Libellus super viginti duobus elementis conicis' of 1522. The second book moves onto two dimensional geometry, i.e. the construction of regular polygons. Here Dürer favours the methods of Ptolemy over Euclid. The third book applies these principles of geometry to architecture, engineering and typography. In architecture Dürer cites Vitruvius but elaborates his own classical designs and columns. In typography, Dürer depicts the geometric construction of the Latin alphabet, relying on Italian precedent. However, his construction of the Gothic alphabet is based upon an entirely different modular system. The fourth book completes the progression of the first and second by moving to three-dimensional forms and the construction of polyhedrons. Here Dürer discusses the five Platonic solids, as well as seven Archimedean semi-regular solids, as well as several of his own invention. In all these, Dürer shows the objects in net. Finally, Dürer discusses the Delian Problem and moves on to the 'construzione legittima', a method of depicting a cube in two dimensions through linear perspective. It was in Bologna that Dürer was taught (possibly by Luca Pacioli or Bramante) the principles of linear perspective, and evidently became familiar with the 'costruzione legittima' in a written description of these principles found only, at this time, in the unpublished treatise of Piero della Francesca. He was also familiar with the 'abbreviated construction' as described by Alberti and the geometrical construction of shadows, a technique of Leonardo da Vinci. Although Dürer made no innovations in these areas, he is notable as the first Northern European to treat matters of visual representation in a scientific way, and with understanding of Euclidean principles. In addition to these geometrical constructions, Dürer discusses in this last book of Underweysung der Messung an assortment of mechanisms for drawing in perspective from models, and provides woodcut illustrations of these methods that have become standard to presentations of perspective.

The Four Books on Human Proportion

Dürer's work on human proportions is called the 'Four Books on Human Proportion' ('Vier Bücher von Menschlicher Proportion) of 1528. The first book was mainly composed by 1512/13 and completed by 1523, showing five differently constructed types of both male and female figures, all parts of the body expressed in fractions of the total height. Dürer based these constructions on both Vitruvius and empirical observations of, "two to three hundred living persons,"[३] in his own words. The second book includes eight further types, broken down not into fractions but an Albertian system, which Dürer probably learnt from Francesco di Giorgio's 'De harmonica mundi totius' of 1525. In the third book, Dürer gives principles by which the proportions of the figures can be modified, including the mathematical simulation of convex and concave mirrors; here Dürer also deals with human physiognomy. The fourth book is devoted to the theory of movement.

Appended to the third book, however, is a self contained essay on aesthetics, which Dürer worked on between 1512 and 1528, and it is here that we learn of his theories concerning 'ideal beauty'. Dürer rejected Alberti's concept of an objective beauty, proposing a relativist notion of beauty based on variety. Nonetheless, Dürer still believed that truth was hidden within nature, and that there were rules which ordered beauty, even though he found it difficult to define the criteria for such a code. In 1512/13 his three criteria were function ('Nutz'), naïve approval ('Wohlgefallen') and the happy medium ('Mittelmass'). However, unlike Alberti and Leonardo, Dürer was most troubled by understanding not just the abstract notions of beauty but as to how an artist can create beautiful images. Between 1512 and the final draft in 1528, Dürer's belief developed from an understanding of human creativity as spontaneous or inspired to a concept of 'selective inward synthesis'.[३] In other words, that an artist builds on a wealth of visual experiences in order to imagine beautiful things. Dürer's belief in the abilities of a single artist over inspiration prompted him to assert that "one man may sketch something with his pen on half a sheet of paper in one day, or may cut it into a tiny piece of wood with his little iron, and it turns out to be better and more artistic than another's work at which its author labours with the utmost diligence for a whole year."[१०]

See also

References

  1. १.० १.१ Mueller, Peter O. (1993) Substantiv-Derivation in Den Schriften Albrecht Durers, Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-012815-2.
  2. Panofsky:223
  3. ३.० ३.१ ३.२ ३.३ Erwin Panofsky, "The Life and Art of Albrecht Dürer", Princeton, 1945, ISBN 0-691-00303-3
  4. Panofsky:235
  5. ५.० ५.१ ५.२ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Bartrum
  6. Price:225-248
  7. Strauss, 1981
  8. Price:254
  9. Harbison
  10. Panofsky:283

Books/sources

  • Giulia Bartrum (2002), Albrecht Dürer and his Legacy, British Museum Press. ISBN 0-7141-2633-0
  • Wilhelm Kurth (Editor) (2000), The Complete Woodcuts of Albrecht Durer, Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-21097-9 — still in print in paperback.
  • David Landau & Peter Parshall, The Renaissance Print, Yale, 1996, ISBN 0-300-06883-2
  • Erwin Panofsky(1945), "The Life and Art of Albrecht Dürer", Princeton, ISBN 0-691-00303-3
  • Walter L. Strauss (Editor) (1973), The Complete Engravings, Etchings and Drypoints of Albrecht Durer, Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-22851-7 — still in print in paperback.
  • Craig Harbison, "Dürer and the Reformation: The Problem of the Re-dating of the St. Philip Engraving", in The Art Bulletin, Vol. 58, No. 3, 368-373. Sep., 1976.
  • David Hotchkiss Price, Albrecht Dürer's Renaissance: Humanism, Reformation and the Art of Faith, Michigan, 2003.

External links


Persondata
नां Dürer, Albrecht
मेमेगु नां
चीहाकःगु विवरण German artist and mathematician
बुगु तिथि 21 May 1471
बुगु थाय् Nuremberg, Germany
मदुगु तिथि 6 April 1528
मदुगु थाय् Nuremberg, Germany


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